Epigrafide Dijital Araçların Evrimi ve Güncel Durumu: Belgeleme, Analiz ve Altyapı
Eren NACAK
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4804-6695
PHASELIS XII (2026) 135-161
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21504428
Geliş Tarihi: 19.05.2026 | Kabul Tarihi: 01.09.2026
Elektronik Yayın Tarihi: 14.10.2026
Abstract:
Digital epigraphy spans imaging, three-dimensional documentation, machine learning, and linked open data, warranting critical review to situate recent claims within the discipline. The article traces the evolution of epigraphic documentation from paper squeezes to AI-assisted tools and surveys the methods and infrastructures shaping the field. Successive sections address documentation history, RTI, SfM photogrammetry, multispectral and hyperspectral imaging, deep learning systems including Pythia, Ithaca, and Aeneas, digital databases, the EpiDoc standard, and the FAIR/IIIF/Linked Open Data infrastructure, with problems and shortcomings discussed thereafter. Peer-reviewed independent replication studies auditing the reported accuracy of AI epigraphy tools remain limited, and these tools perform unevenly between formulaic and poorly attested inscriptions, where expert input is most critical in the second group. The concentration of computational epigraphy on Greek and Latin marginalises geographically more diverse epigraphic traditions, including those of Türkiye. Database sustainability, interoperability, and FAIR compliance recur as structural problems. AI-assisted tools should function as decision-support systems, not verified methodological revolutions.
Keywords: Digital Epigraphy, RTI, Photogrammetry, Deep Learning, EpiDoc, Epigraphic Databases
Öz: Dijital epigrafi; görüntüleme, üç boyutlu belgeleme, makine öğrenimi ve bağlantılı açık veriyi kapsamakta olup, güncel iddiaların disiplin içindeki yerini belirlemek adına eleştirel bir değerlendirmeyi gerekli kılmaktadır. Makale, epigrafik belgelemenin kâğıt estampajlardan yapay zekâ destekli araçlara uzanan evrimini incelemekte; alanı şekillendiren yöntem ve altyapıları tanıtmaktadır. Sırasıyla belgeleme tarihi, RTI, SfM fotogrametrisi, multispektral ve hiperspektral görüntüleme, Pythia, Ithaca ve Aeneas gibi derin öğrenme sistemleri, dijital veri tabanları, EpiDoc standardı ve FAIR/IIIF/Bağlantılı Açık Veri altyapısı ele alınmakta; mevcut sorun ve eksiklikler tartışılmaktadır. Yapay zekâ epigrafi araçlarının bildirilen doğruluk oranlarını denetleyen hakemli ve bağımsız yineleme çalışmaları literatürde sınırlı kalmaktadır. Bu sistemler, kalıplaşmış (formüler) ile az tanıklanmış yazıtlar arasında düzensiz performans göstermekte; uzman katkısı özellikle ikinci grupta kritik önem taşımaktadır. Hesaplamalı epigrafinin Hellence ve Latince üzerine yoğunlaşması, Türkiye’deki veriler dâhil, coğrafi bakımdan daha çeşitli epigrafik gelenekleri ikincil konuma itmektedir. Veri tabanı sürdürülebilirliği, birlikte çalışabilirlik ve FAIR uyumluluğu yinelenen yapısal sorunlardır. Yapay zekâ destekli araçlar, henüz doğrulanmış metodolojik devrimler olarak değil, karar destek sistemleri olarak konumlandırılmalıdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler:Dijital Epigrafi, RTI, Fotogrametri, Derin Öğrenme, EpiDoc, Epigrafik Veri Tabanları
Aioanei A. C., J. Klein, K. M. Klein, R. R. Hunziker-Rodewald & D. L. Michels 2026, “DeepHadad: Enhancing Readability of Damaged Inscriptions with Synthetic Data”. ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 19/1, 1-18.
Aioanei A. C., R. R. Hunziker-Rodewald, K. M. Klein & D. L. Michels 2024, “Deep Aramaic: Towards a Synthetic Data Paradigm Enabling Machine Learning in Epigraphy”. PLoS ONE 19/4, e0299297.
Akcan A., E. F. B. Taşdemir, F. Kizilirmak, M. Kuru, F. Öncel & B. Yanikoğlu 2022, “Akis: Transcription Software of Ottoman-Turkish Texts Using Deep Learning”. Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 9/2, 43–48.
Akçay A. 2016, “Epigrafi Araştırmalarında Yeni Bir Belgeleme ve Analiz Metodu Olarak RTI”. MJH VI/2, 1–16.
Álvarez F. L., E. García-Barriocanal & J. L. Gómez-Pantoja 2010, “Sharing Epigraphic Information as Linked Data”. Research Conference on Metadata and Semantic Research. Berlin & Heidelberg, 222–234.
Álvarez F. L., J. L. Gómez-Pantoja & E. García-Barriocanal 2011, “From Relational Databases to Linked Data in Epigraphy: Hispania Epigraphica Online”. Research Conference on Metadata and Semantic Research. Berlin/Heidelberg, 225–233.
Anderson A., S. Gordin, B. Li, Y. Liu & M. C. Passarotti (Eds.) 2025, Proceedings of the Ancient Language Processing Workshop (ALP 2025). Albuquerque.
Assael Y., T. Sommerschield & J. Prag 2019, “Restoring Ancient Text Using Deep Learning: A Case Study on Greek Epigraphy”. Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP). Hong Kong, 6368–6375.
Assael Y., T. Sommerschield, B. Shillingford, M. Bordbar, J. Pavlopoulos, M. Chatzipanagiotou, I. Androutsopoulos, J. Prag & N. De Freitas 2022, “Restoring and Attributing Ancient Texts Using Deep Neural Networks”. Nature 603/7900, 280–283.
Assael Y., T. Sommerschield, A. Cooley, B. Shillingford, J. Pavlopoulos, P. Suresh, B. Herms, J. Grayston, B. Maynard, N. Dietrich, R. Wulgaert, J. Prag, A. Mullen & S. Mohamed 2025, “Contextualizing Ancient Texts with Generative Neural Networks”. Nature 645/8079, 141–147.
Barmpoutis A. & E. Bozia 2023, “Reinscribing the 3rd Dimension in Epigraphic Studies and Transcending Disciplinary Boundaries”. Eds. H. González Bordas & F. Comte, Numérique et lecture de textes épigraphiques altérés (PrimaLun@ 27). Pessac, 79–94.
Barucci A., C. Cucci, M. Franci, M. Loschiavo & F. Argenti 2021, “A Deep Learning Approach to Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Classification”. IEEE Access 9, 123438–123447.
Battezzato L., B. Graziosi & J. Haubold (Eds.) 2025, Artificial Intelligence and Greek Philology: An Experiment. Pisa.
Bérard V. 1892, “Inscriptions d’Asie Mineure (2)”. BCH 16, 417–446.
Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2019, Inscriptiones Graecae Online. Kaynak: https://www.bbaw.de/en/research/inscriptiones-graecae
Berry D. M. 2022, “AI, Ethics, and Digital Humanities”. Ed. J. O’Sullivan, The Bloomsbury Handbook to the Digital Humanities. London, 445-457.
Bhuvaneswari S. & K. Kathiravan 2024, “Enhancing Epigraphy: A Deep Learning Approach to Recognize and Analyze Tamil Ancient Inscriptions”. Neural Computing and Applications 36, 19839–19861.
Bodard G. 2010, “EpiDoc: Epigraphic Documents in XML for Publication and Interchange”. Ed. F. Feraudi-Gruénais, Latin on Stone: Epigraphic Research and Electronic Archives. Lanham, 101–118.
Bodard G. & S. Stoyanova 2016, “Epigraphers and Encoders: Strategies for Teaching and Learning Digital Epigraphy”. Eds. G. Bodard & M. Romanello, Digital Classics Outside the Echo-Chamber. London, 51-68.
Bodard G., H. Cayless, M. Depauw, L. Isaksen, F. Lawrence & S. Rahtz 2017, “Standards for Networking Ancient Person Data: Digital Approaches to Problems in Prosopographical Space”. Digital Classics Online, 28–43.
Bodard G. & P. Yordanova 2020, “Publishing Inscriptions of Aphrodisias Using EFES”. Eds. A. De Santis & I. Rossi, Crossing Experiences in Digital Epigraphy. Warsaw, 39–48.
Bodel J., J. Prag & C. Roueché 2024, “Open Scholarship: Epigraphic Corpora in the Digital Age”. Eds. P. Fröhlich & M. Navarro Caballero, L’épigraphie au XXIe siècle. Actes du XVIe Congrès International d’Épigraphie Grecque et Latine, Bordeaux, 29 août–02 septembre 2022. Bordeaux, 91–117.
Bogacz B. & H. Mara 2022, “Digital Assyriology – Advances in Visual Cuneiform Analysis”. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 15/2, 38:1–38:22.
Bozia E. & A. Barmpoutis 2015, “Life and Afterlife of Archaeological Sources: Electronic Preservation, Dissemination, and Study of Latin Inscriptions”. Archeologia e Calcolatori 26, 30-32.
Breasted J. H. (Ed.) 1927, Oriental Institute Communications. Chicago.
Brunet M. 2019, “E-stampages: la mise en ligne des collections d’estampages. Une nouvelle ressource pour l’étude des inscriptions grecques”. Comptes Rendus des Séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 163/1, 263–285.
Bukreeva I., A. Mittone, A. Bravin, G. Festa, M. Alessandrelli, P. Coan, V. Formoso, R. G. Agostino, M. Giocondo, F. Ciuchi & M. Fratini 2016, “Virtual Unrolling and Deciphering of Herculaneum Papyri by X-Ray Phase-Contrast Tomography”. Scientific Reports 6/1, 27227.
Burns P. J. 2023, “LatinCy: Synthetic Trained Pipelines for Latin NLP”. arXiv:2305.04365.
Can G., J.-M. Odobez & D. Gatica-Perez 2018, “How to Tell Ancient Signs Apart? Recognizing and Visualizing Maya Glyphs with CNNs”. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 11/4, 1–25.
Carrero-Pazos M. & D. Espinosa-Espinosa 2018, “Tailoring 3D Modelling Techniques for Epigraphic Texts Restitution. Case Studies in Deteriorated Roman Inscriptions”. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 10, e00079.
Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents 2020, The Squeeze Collection. University of Oxford. Kaynak: https://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/squeeze-collection-0
Champion E. & H. Rahaman 2020, “Survey of 3D Digital Heritage Repositories and Platforms”. Virtual Archaeology Review 11/23, 1–15.
Chastel C., P. Blin, M. Cotte & V. Griffisch 2023, “La restauration et la numérisation des estampages de Nestor L’Hôte du département des manuscrits de la BnF: un projet confié au centre JOEL-LE-THEULE (Sablé sur Sarthe)”. Actualités de la Conservation 38, 1–12.
Chen D., A. Agarwal, T. Berg-Kirkpatrick & J. Myerston 2023, “CuneiML: A Cuneiform Dataset for Machine Learning”. Journal of Open Humanities Data 9/1. Article 20.
Chen D., J. Tian, Y. Weng, T. Berg-Kirkpatrick & J. Myerston 2024, “Classification of Paleographic Artifacts at Scale: Mitigating Confounds and Distribution Shift in Cuneiform Tablet Dating”. Eds. J. Pavlopoulos, T. Sommerschield, Y. Assael, S. Gordin, K. Cho, M. Passarotti, R. Sprugnoli, Y. Liu, B. Li & A. Anderson, Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Machine Learning for Ancient Languages (ML4AL 2024). Bangkok, 30–41.
Cheng M. F., A. Mukundan, R. Karmakar, M. A. E. Valappil, J. Jouhar & H. C. Wang 2025, “Modern Trends and Recent Applications of Hyperspectral Imaging: A Review”. Technologies 13/5, 170.
Clanuwat T., M. Bober-Irizar, A. Kitamoto, A. Lamb, K. Yamamoto & D. Ha 2018, “Deep Learning for Classical Japanese Literature”. arXiv:1812.01718.
Cowen-Breen C., C. Brooks, B. Graziosi & J. Haubold 2023, “Logion: Machine-Learning Based Detection and Correction of Textual Errors in Greek Philology”. Proceedings of the Ancient Language Processing Workshop. Varna, 170–178.
Cucci C., T. Guidi, M. Picollo, L. Stefani, L. Python, F. Argenti & A. Barucci 2024, “Hyperspectral Imaging and Convolutional Neural Networks for Augmented Documentation of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts”. Heritage Science 12/1, 1–15.
Cullhed E. 2026, “Instruction-tuning pretrained causal language models to restore ancient Greek papyri and inscriptions”. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 41/1, 69-76.
Cultural Heritage Imaging 2010, Guide to RTIViewer. Kaynak: https://www.c-h-i.org/learn/media/RTIViewer_Guide_final.pdf
Cultural Heritage Imaging 2011, Reflectance Transformation Imaging: Guide to Highlight Image Processing v1.4. Kaynak:https://culturalheritageimaging.org/What_We_Offer/Downloads/rtibuilder/RTI_hlt_Processing_Guide_v14_beta.pdf
De Santis A. & I. Rossi (Eds.) 2018, Crossing Experiences in Digital Epigraphy: From Practice to Knowledge. Warsaw.
Depauw M. & T. Gheldof 2013, “Trismegistos: An Interdisciplinary Platform for Ancient World Texts and Related Information”. International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries. Cham, 40–52.
Dencker T., P. Klinkisch, S. M. Maul & B. Ommer 2020, “Deep Learning of Cuneiform Sign Detection with Weak Supervision Using Transliteration Alignment”. PLoS ONE 15/12, e0243039.
Diara F. 2023, “Structured-Light Scanning and Metrological Analysis for Archaeology: Quality Assessment of Artec 3D Solutions for Cuneiform Tablets”. Heritage 6/9, 6016–6034.
Diara F., F. G. Barsacchi & S. de Martino 2024, “Moving beyond the Content: 3D Scanning and Post-Processing Analysis of the Cuneiform Tablets of the Turin Collection”. Applied Sciences 14/11, 4492.
Dixit V., N. Hussain, S. Basak, D. Atturu, D. Mitra & U. Bhattacharya 2025, “Deep Learning in Archiving Indus Script and Motif Information”. Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology 8/1, 156-169.
Du Camp M. 1852, Egypte, Nubie, Palestine et Syrie: dessins photographiques recueillis de 1849 à 1851. Paris.
Durusu-Tanrıöver M. 2020, “Adapting Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) to Suboptimal Field Conditions Presented by Large-Scale Landscape Monuments”. Cedrus VIII, 135–146.
Earl G., K. Martinez & H. Pagi 2010, “Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) System for Ancient Documentary Artefacts”. Proceedings of EVA London 2010: Electronic Visualisation and the Arts. London, 116–119.
Easton R. L., W. A. Christens-Barry & K. T. Knox 2011, “Spectral Image Processing and Analysis of the Archimedes Palimpsest”. Proceedings of the 19th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO 2011). Barcelona, 1440–1444.
Elliott T. 2014, “Epigraphy and Digital Resources”. Eds. C. Bruun & J. Edmondson, The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy. Oxford, 78–85.
Elliott T., G. Bodard, H. Cayless, M. Lamé, P. Liuzzo, C. Tupman, S. Vanderbilt, I. Vagionakis, M. Filosa & E. Morlock 2026, EpiDoc: Epigraphic Documents in TEI XML. Kaynak: https://epidoc.stoa.org/
Faigenbaum-Golovin S., A. Mendel-Geberovich, A. Shaus, B. Sober, M. Cordonsky, D. Levin, M. Moinester, B. Sass, E. Turkel, E. Piasetzky & I. Finkelstein 2017, “Multispectral Imaging Reveals Biblical-Period Inscription Unnoticed for Half a Century”. PLoS ONE 12/6, e0178400.
Feraudi-Gruénais F. & F. Grieshaber 2016, “Digital Epigraphy am Scheideweg? / Digital Epigraphy at a Crossroads?”. Nachnutzung und Nachnutzbarkeit der Forschung im Akademienprogramm. Düsseldorf, 9–11 November 2016. DOI:10.11588/heidok.00022141.
Fuentes-Jimenez D., D. Pizarro, Á. Hernández, A. Bartoli, C. G. Méndez, L. de Diego-Otón, S. Palazuelos-Cagigas & C. G. Zamacona 2025, “The OCR-PT-CT Project: Semi-Automatic Recognition of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Based on Metric Learning”. arXiv:2512.24197.
Funke P. 2019, “Inscriptiones Graecae Between Present and Future”. Axon 3/2, 17–24.
Geng J. 2011, “Structured-Light 3D Surface Imaging: A Tutorial”. Advances in Optics and Photonics 3/2, 128–160.
Gordin S., M. Alper, A. Romach, L. S. Santos, N. Yochai & R. Lalazar 2024, “CuReD: Deep Learning Optical Character Recognition for Cuneiform Text Editions and Legacy Materials”. Eds. J. Pavlopoulos, T. Sommerschield, Y. Assael, S. Gordin, K. Cho, M. Passarotti, R. Sprugnoli, Y. Liu, B. Li & A. Anderson, Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Machine Learning for Ancient Languages (ML4AL 2024). Bangkok, 130–140.
Gotsikas I. N., Y. Z. Tzifopoulos & P. A. Mitkas 2025, “Digital Ektypon: Using an RTI Dome for Digitizing Squeezes and Epigraphic Research”. IEEE Access 13, 25154–25162.
Grieshaber F. 2019, Epigraphic Database Heidelberg – Data Reuse Options, Heidelberg. DOI: 10.11588/heidok.00026599.
Grzesik D. 2020, “The Epigraphic Curve at Delphi”. Ed. K. Nawotka, Epigraphic Culture in the Eastern Mediterranean in Antiquity. London, 52–67.
Gutherz G., S. Gordin, L. Sáenz, O. Levy & J. Berant 2023, “Translating Akkadian to English with Neural Machine Translation”. PNAS Nexus 2/5, pgad096.
Habicht C. 2010, “The IAS Squeeze Collection: Origin and Development”. The Institute Letter Fall 2010, 6–7.
Hanneken T. R. 2016, “New Technology for Imaging Unreadable Manuscripts and Other Artifacts: Integrated Spectral Reflectance Transformation Imaging (Spectral RTI)”. Eds. C. Clivaz, P. Dilley & D. Hamidović, Ancient Worlds in Digital Culture (Digital Biblical Studies 1). Leiden/Boston, 180–195.
Hedrick C. W. 1999, “Democracy and the Athenian Epigraphical Habit”. Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 68/3, 387–439.
Heřmánková P., M. Horster & J. Prag 2022, A Report from the Scoping Survey of the FAIR Epigraphy Project (v1.0.0). Kaynak: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6610144
Heřmánková P., I. Asif, M. Horster & J. R. Prag 2025, “From Fragmented Data to Linked History: Developing the FAIR Epigraphic Vocabularies”. Journal of Open Humanities Data 11/1.
Howe N. R., F. Chang, I. Falbo, T. Brown & A. Hershkowitz 2025, “Character recognition for Greek squeezes”. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 28/3, 345-356.
Hunt L., M. Lundberg & B. Zuckerman 2005, “InscriptiFact: A Virtual Archive of Ancient Inscriptions from the Near East”. International Journal on Digital Libraries 5/3, 153–166.
Hunt L., M. Lundberg & B. Zuckerman 2006, “InscriptiFact, a Tool for Study of Ancient Near Eastern Inscriptions: Impact on Scholarly Practice”. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society 1/7, 115-126.
Hurst S., L. Franklin & E. Johnson 2024, “Assessment of Apple’s Object Capture Photogrammetry API for Rapidly Creating Research Quality Cultural Heritage 3D Models”. PLoS ONE 19/12, e0314560.
I.Aphrodisias 2007 Reynolds J. M., C. Roueché & G. Bodard, Inscriptions of Aphrodisias. King’s College London. Kaynak: http://insaph.kcl.ac.uk/iaph2007.
Iversen P. A. 2007, “The Packard Humanities Institute (PHI) Greek Epigraphy Project and the Revolution in Greek Epigraphy”. Abgadiyat 2/1, 51–55.
Johnson W. R. 2000, “The Epigraphic Survey in Luxor: The First Seventy-Five Years”. News & Notes 164, 1–9.
Kapon D., M. Fire & S. Gordin 2024, “Shaping History: Advanced Machine Learning Techniques for the Analysis and Dating of Cuneiform Tablets over Three Millennia”. arXiv:2406.04039.
Kingsland K. 2019, “A Comparative Analysis of Two Commercial Digital Photogrammetry Software for Cultural Heritage Applications”. Eds. M. Cristani, A. Prati, O. Lanz, S. Messelodi & N. Sebe, New Trends in Image Analysis and Processing – ICIAP 2019. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 11808. Cham: Springer, 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30754-7_8.
Kinsman T. 2016, “An Easy to Build Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) System”. Journal of Biocommunication 40/1, e4.
Knox K. T., C. Dickinson, L. Wei, R. L. Easton Jr & R. H. Johnston 2001, “Multispectral Imaging of the Archimedes Palimpsest”. Proceedings of the IS&T PICS 2001 Conference. Montreal, 206–210.
Kolb A. & Speidel M. A. 2025, A New Era of Epigraphy: 40 Years of Epigraphic Database Clauss/Slaby. Berlin.
Laum B. 1914, Stiftungen in der griechischen und römischen Antike. Ein Beitrag zur antiken Kulturgeschichte, I–II. Leipzig.
Lech P., M. Klebowski, M. Beldyga & W. Ostrowski 2024, “Application of a Stand-Alone RTI Measuring System with an Integrated Camera in Cultural Heritage Digitisation”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 53, 104318.
Lech P., M. Matera & P. Zakrzewski 2021, “Using Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) to Document Ancient Amphora Stamps from Tanais, Russia. Reflections on First Approach to Their Digitalisation”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 36, 102839.
Liuzzo P. M. 2015, “EAGLE and EUROPEANA: Architecture Problems for Aggregation and Harmonization”. Proceedings of the Symposium on Cultural Heritage Markup. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies 16. DOI: 10.4242/BalisageVol16.Liuzzo01.
Liuzzo P. M. 2019, “EAGLE Continued: IDEA. The International Digital Epigraphy Association”. Eds. A. De Santis & I. Rossi, Crossing Experiences in Digital Epigraphy. Warsaw, 216–230.
Luo J., Y. Cao & R. Barzilay 2019, “Neural Decipherment via Minimum-Cost Flow: From Ugaritic to Linear B”. Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2019). Florence, 3146–3155.
Ma Y., F. Li, S. Chen, W. Zheng, F. Deng, D. Yang, Y. Liao, G. Long, L. Yuan & Y. Tang 2025, “OraGAN: A Deep Learning Based Model for Restoring Oracle Bone Script Images”. npj Heritage Science 13/1, 681.
MacDonald L., T. Bennett, C. Ramsey & C. Crowther 2019, “New RTI Technology for Palæography”. Eds. J. Weinel, J. P. Bowen, G. Diprose & N. Lambert, Proceedings of EVA. London.
Malzbender T., D. Gelb & H. Wolters 2001, “Polynomial Texture Maps”. Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH 2001). New York, 519–528.
Malzbender T., D. Gelb, H. Wolters & B. Zuckerman 2000, “Enhancement of Shape Perception by Surface Reflectance Transformation”. VMV 2000. Saarbrücken, 183.
Mara H., S. Krömker, S. Jakob & B. Breuckmann 2010, “GigaMesh and gilgamesh: 3D multiscale integral invariant cuneiform character extraction”. Proceedings of the 11th International conference on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. Paris, 131-138.
Meneses L. & R. Furuta 2019, “Shelf Life: Identifying the Abandonment of Online Digital Humanities Projects”. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 34/Supplement_1, i129–i134.
Mudge M., T. Malzbender, A. Chalmers, R. Scopigno, J. Davis, O. Wang, P. Gunawardane, M. Ashley, M. Doerr, A. Proenca & J. Barbosa 2008, “Image-Based Empirical Information Acquisition, Scientific Reliability, and Long-Term Digital Preservation for the Natural Sciences and Cultural Heritage”. Eurographics 2008 Tutorials. Crete.
Mytum H. & J. R. Peterson 2018, “The Application of Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) in Historical Archaeology”. Historical Archaeology 52/2, 489–503.
Nawotka K., P. Głogowski, M. Halamus, P. Komar, J. Porucznik, Ł. Szełąg, J. K. Wilimowska & A. Wojciechowska 2022, “Epigraphic Habit and History of the Eastern Mediterranean”. Eos 109.
Nazim A., M. Kondrát, K. Zidek & J. Pitel 2025, “Methodology of Object Reconstruction by Photogrammetry and Structured-Light Scanning for Industrial 3D Visualisation”. Sensors 25/23, 7177.
Orlandi S., L. M. C. Giberti & R. Santucci 2014, “EAGLE: Europeana Network of Ancient Greek and Latin Epigraphy. Making the Ancient Inscriptions Accessible”. Lexicon Philosophicum 2.
Orlandi S. 2021, “Digital Projects in Epigraphy: Research Needs, Technical Possibilities, and Funding Problems”. Eds. M. A. Velázquez Soriano & D. Espinosa-Espinosa, Epigraphy in the Digital Age: Opportunities and Challenges in the Recording, Analysis and Dissemination of Epigraphic Texts. Oxford, 1–8.
Otis J. 2023, “Follow the Money?: Funding and Digital Sustainability”. Digital Humanities Quarterly 17/1.
Önen N. T., B. Gürel & A. Akçay 2017, “Phaselis Teritoryumunda Tespit Edilen Lahitlerin RTI Metodu Işığında Arkeolojik ve Epigrafik İncelemeleri”. Phaselis 3, 343–369.
Papadaki A. I., P. Agrafiotis, A. Georgopoulos & S. Prignitz 2015, “Accurate 3D Scanning of Damaged Ancient Greek Inscriptions for Revealing Weathered Letters”. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences 40, 237–243.
Parsons S., C. S. Parker, C. Chapman, M. Hayashida & W. B. Seales 2023, “EduceLab-Scrolls: Verifiable Recovery of Text from Herculaneum Papyri Using X-Ray CT”. arXiv:2304.02084.
Pavlopoulos J., T. Sommerschield, Y. Assael, S. Gordin, K. Cho, M. Passarotti, R. Sprugnoli, Y. Liu, B. Li & A. Anderson (Eds.) 2024, Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Machine Learning for Ancient Languages (ML4AL 2024). Bangkok.
Petrie W. M. F. 1904, Methods & Aims in Archaeology. London.
Picollo M., C. Cucci, A. Casini & L. Stefani 2020, “Hyper-Spectral Imaging Technique in the Cultural Heritage Field: New Possible Scenarios”. Sensors 20/10, 2843.
Piquette K. E. 2014, “Reflectance Transformation Imaging and Ancient Egyptian Material Culture”. Damqatum 10.
Ponchio F. 2024, RelightLab. Kaynak: https://vcg.isti.cnr.it/tag/RTI/
Ponchio F., M. Corsini & R. Scopigno 2019, “RELIGHT: A Compact and Accurate RTI Representation for the Web”. Graphical Models 105, 101040.
Ponchio F., F. Bettio, F. Marton, R. Pintus, L. Righetto, A. Giachetti & E. Gobbetti 2025, “OpenLIME: An Open and Flexible Web Framework for Creating and Exploring Complex Multi-Layered Relightable Image Models”. Digital Heritage 2025.
Potenziani M., M. Callieri, M. Dellepiane, M. Corsini, F. Ponchio & R. Scopigno 2015, “3DHOP: 3D Heritage Online Presenter”. Computers & Graphics 52, 129–141.
Prag J. R. W. & J. Chartrand 2018, “I.Sicily: Building a Digital Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient Sicily”. Eds. A. De Santis & I. Rossi, Crossing Experiences in Digital Epigraphy: From Practice to Discipline. Warsaw, 240–252.
Probst A., D. Gatziolis & N. Strigul 2018, “Intercomparison of Photogrammetry Software for Three-Dimensional Vegetation Modelling”. Royal Society Open Science 5/7: 172192.
Punia R., N. Schenk, C. Chiarcos & É. Pagé-Perron 2020, “Towards the First Machine Translation System for Sumerian Transliterations”. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2020). Barcelona, 3454–3460.
Ramírez-Sánchez M., M. García Sánchez & S. Giralt Soler 2015, “Epigraphia 3D. Un proyecto de innovación científica en la divulgación del patrimonio epigráfico de Hispania”. Epigraphica 77/1-2, 371–396.
Ravanelli R., L. Lastilla & S. Ferrara 2022, “A High-Resolution Photogrammetric Workflow Based on Focus Stacking for the 3D Modeling of Small Aegean Inscriptions”. Journal of Cultural Heritage 54, 130–145.
Riemenschneider F. & A. Frank 2023, “Exploring Large Language Models for Classical Philology”. Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2023). Toronto, 15181–15199.
Romein C. A., A. Rabus, G. Leifert & P. B. Ströbel 2025, “Assessing Advanced Handwritten Text Recognition Engines for Digitizing Historical Documents”. International Journal of Digital Humanities 7, 115–134.
Sahala A. 2021, Contributions to Computational Assyriology. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Helsinki. Helsinki.
Sahala A. & K. Lindén 2023, “A Neural Pipeline for POS-Tagging and Lemmatizing Cuneiform Languages”. Eds. A. Anderson, S. Gordin, B. Li, Y. Liu & M. C. Passarotti, Proceedings of the Ancient Language Processing Workshop. Varna, 203–212.
Sahala A., T. Alstola, J. Valk & K. Lindén 2022, “BabyLemmatizer: A Lemmatizer and POS-Tagger for Akkadian”. CLARIN Annual Conference 2022. Prague, 14–18.
Sahala A., M. Silfverberg, A. Arppe & K. Lindén 2020, “BabyFST–Towards a Finite-State Based Computational Model of Ancient Babylonian”. Proceedings of the 12th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC 2020). Marseille, 3886–3894.
Salerno E., A. Tonazzini & L. Bedini 2007, “Digital Image Analysis to Enhance Underwritten Text in the Archimedes Palimpsest”. International Journal of Document Analysis and Recognition 9/2, 79–87.
Sapirstein P. 2019, “Segmentation, Reconstruction, and Visualization of Ancient Inscriptions in 2.5D”. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 12/2, 1–30.
Seales W. B. & C. Y. Chapman 2023, “From Stone to Silicon: Technical Advances in Epigraphy”. International Journal on Digital Libraries 24, 129–138.
Seuret M., I. Marthot-Santaniello, S. A. White, O. Serbaeva Saraogi, S. Agolli, G. Carrière, D. Rodriguez-Salas & V. Christlein 2023, “ICDAR 2023 Competition on Detection and Recognition of Greek Letters on Papyri”. International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition. Cham, 498–507.
Sfikas G., P. Dimitrakopoulos, G. Retsinas, C. Nikou & P. Kitsiou 2024, “Bessarion: Medieval Greek Inscriptions on a Challenging Dataset for Vision and NLP Tasks”. International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems (DAS 2024). Cham, 393–407.
Shivam F. N. U., M. Leight, M. K. Kelly, C. Davis, K. Clodfelter, J. Thrasher, Y. Reddy & P. Gyawali 2024, “Segmentation of Maya Hieroglyphs through Fine-Tuned Foundation Models”. arXiv:2405.16426.
Smithies J., C. Westling, A. M. Sichani, P. Mellen & A. Ciula 2019, “Managing 100 Digital Humanities Projects: Digital Scholarship and Archiving in King’s Digital Lab”. Digital Humanities Quarterly 13/1, Article 000411.
Sommerschield T., Y. Assael, J. Pavlopoulos, V. Stefanak, A. Senior, C. Dyer, J. Bodel, J. Prag, I. Androutsopoulos & N. De Freitas 2023, “Machine Learning for Ancient Languages: A Survey”. Computational Linguistics 49/3, 703–747.
Sprugnoli R. & M. Passarotti (Eds.) 2024, Proceedings of LT4HALA 2024: The Third Workshop on Language Technologies for Historical and Ancient Languages. Torino.
Stötzner E., T. Homburg & H. Mara 2023, “CNN based cuneiform sign detection learned from annotated 3D renderings and mapped photographs with illumination augmentation”. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF international conference on computer vision. Seoul, 1680-1688.
Takan S., B. Bingöl, G. M. Şahin & Ö. S. Gavaz 2024, “Hitit Çivi Yazılı Tabletlerin Yapay Zeka Algoritmaları ile Okunması”. Bilişim Teknolojileri Dergisi 17/3, 199–205.
Taşdemir E. F. B., Z. Tandoğan, S. D. Akansu, F. Kızılırmak, M. U. Sen, A. Akcan, M. Kuru & B. Yanıkoğlu 2024, “Automatic Transcription of Ottoman Documents Using Deep Learning”. International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems. Cham, 422–435.
Tetiker N. 2025, “Disiplinlerarası Yaklaşımların Arkeolojik Çalışmalara Etkisi: Yapay Zekâ Uygulamaları ve Kullanılan Teknolojiler”. Eds. M. Aksu, E. Şahin & Z. D. Karanuh, II. Göbeklitepe’den Bugüne Türkiye’nin Tarihi ve Kültürel Mirası Sempozyumu Tam Metin Bildiri E-Kitabı. Ankara, 109–126.
Turcan-Verkerk A. M. 2022, “Ancient Written Cultures and Digital Technology: Biblissima (+)”. Bibliothek und Wissenschaft 55, 103–119.
Turnbull R. M. & E. Mannix 2025, “Detecting and Recognizing Characters in Greek Papyri with YOLOv8, DeiT and SimCLR”. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 28/2, 277–285.
TAM II Tituli Asiae Minoris, II. Tituli Lyciae linguis Graeca et Latina conscripti, ed. E. Kalinka, 3 fasc., Vienna 1920–1944.
Van Groningen B. A. 1932, “Projet d’unification des systèmes de signes critiques”. Chronique d’Égypte 7/13-14, 262–269.
Van Vlasselaer N., B. Keelson, A. Scafoglieri & E. Cattrysse 2024, “Exploring Reliable Photogrammetry Techniques for 3D Modeling in Anatomical Research and Education”. Anatomical Sciences Education 17/3, 674–682.
Vidal-Gorène C. & A. Decours-Perez 2024, “Detecting and Deciphering Damaged Medieval Armenian Inscriptions Using YOLO and Vision Transformers”. ICDAR 2024 Workshops (LNCS). Athens, 22–36.
Wang S., W. Guo, Y. Xu, D. Liu & X. Li 2024, “Coarse-to-Fine Generative Model for Oracle Bone Inscriptions Inpainting”. Eds. J. Pavlopoulos, T. Sommerschield, Y. Assael, S. Gordin, K. Cho, M. Passarotti, R. Sprugnoli, Y. Liu, B. Li & A. Anderson, ML4AL 2024. Bangkok, 107–114.
West G., M. I. Swindall, J. H. Brusuelas, F. Maltomini, M. Gerhardt, M. D’Angelo & J. F. Wallin 2024, “A Deep Learning Pipeline for the Palaeographical Dating of Ancient Greek Papyrus Fragments”. Eds. J. Pavlopoulos, T. Sommerschield, Y. Assael, S. Gordin, K. Cho, M. Passarotti, R. Sprugnoli, Y. Liu, B. Li & A. Anderson, ML4AL 2024. Bangkok, 177–185.
Wilkinson M. D., M. Dumontier, I. J. Aalbersberg, G. Appleton, M. Axton, A. Baak, N. Blomberg, J.-W. Boiten, L. Bonino da Silva Santos, P. E. Bourne, J. Bouwman, A. J. Brookes, T. Clark, M. Crosas, I. Dillo, O. Dumon, S. Edmunds, C. T. Evelo, R. Finkers, A. Gonzalez-Beltran, A. J. G. Gray, P. Groth, C. Goble, J. S. Grethe, J. Heringa, P. A. C. ’t Hoen, R. Hooft, T. Kuhn, R. Kok, J. Kok, S. J. Lusher, M. E. Martone, A. Mons, A. L. Packer, B. Persson, P. Rocca-Serra, M. Roos, R. van Schaik, S.-A. Sansone, E. Schultes, T. Sengstag, T. Slater, G. Strawn, M. A. Swertz, M. Thompson, J. van der Lei, E. van Mulligen, J. Velterop, A. Waagmeester, P. Wittenburg, K. Wolstencroft, J. Zhao & B. Mons 2016, “The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship”. Scientific Data 3, 160018.
Williams E. C., G. Su, S. R. Schloen, M. Prosser, S. Paulus & S. Krishnan 2025, “DeepScribe: Localization and Classification of Elamite Cuneiform Signs via Deep Learning”. ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 18/2, 1–32.
Woodrum C., B. Joseph, A. Haaker & C. Brown 2025, “Named Entity Recognition on Ancient Languages Using Large Language Models: An Exploratory Study”. Eds. H. Degen & S. Ntoa, International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (LNCS). Cham, 430–439.
Yavasan E. & S. Gordin 2025, “From Clay to Code: Transforming Hittite Texts for Machine Learning”. Eds. A. Anderson, S. Gordin, B. Li, Y. Liu, M. C. Passarotti & R. Sprugnoli, ALP 2025. Albuquerque, 77–86.
Yousef T., C. Palladino & S. Jänicke 2023, “Transformer-Based Named Entity Recognition for Ancient Greek”. Digital Humanities 2023. Graz.
Zendagui A., G. Le Goïc, H. Chatoux, J. B. Thomas, Y. Castro, M. Nurit & A. Mansouri 2021, “Quality Assessment of Dynamic Virtual Relighting from RTI Data: Application to the Inspection of Engineering Surfaces”. Fifteenth International Conference on Quality Control by Artificial Vision (SPIE 11794). Bellingham, 94–102.
Zhang Y., B. He, Y. Chen, H. Li, H. Yue, S. Zhang, H. Dou, J. Yan, Z. Liu, Y. Zhang & F. Wu 2024a, “PhiloGPT: A Philology-Oriented Large Language Model for Ancient Chinese Manuscripts with Dunhuang as Case Study”. Proceedings of the 2024 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. Miami, Association for Computational Linguistics, 2784–2801. DOI: 10.18653/v1/2024.emnlp-main.163
Zhang Y., H. Li, S. Zhang, R. Wang, B. He, H. Dou, J. Yan, Y. Zhang & F. Wu 2024b, “Llmco4mr: LLMs-Aided Neural Combinatorial Optimization for Ancient Manuscript Restoration from Fragments with Case Studies on Dunhuang”. European Conference on Computer Vision. Cham, 253–269.
Zhang Y., A. Han, S. Wang, J. Liu, X. Li, D. Liu & Y. Cen 2025, “Generating Oracle Bone Inscriptions Based on the Structure Aware Diffusion Model”. npj Heritage Science 13/1, 461.
Zuckerman B., M. Lundberg & L. Hunt 2014, “InscriptiFact: Internet Access to High-Resolution Images of Ancient Inscriptions and Artifacts from the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Worlds”. Near Eastern Archaeology 77/3, 238–242.
Nacak E. 2026, “The Evolution and Current State of Digital Tools in Epigraphy: Documentation, Analysis, and Infrastructure”. Phaselis XII, 135-161. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21504428
Eren NACAK
PhD Cand., Akdeniz University, Mediterranean Civilizations Research Institute, Department of Mediterranean Ancient Studies, Antalya, TÜRKİYE. erennacak@icloud.com | https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4804-6695


